Radiocarbon Dating Calculator: Estimate Age from Carbon-14
Calculate the age of organic materials based on Carbon-14 decay. Input the percentage of C-14 remaining or C-14/C-12 ratio to determine when an organism died.
Radiocarbon Dating Calculator
Radiocarbon dating is a method used to determine the age of organic materials by measuring the amount of Carbon-14 (C-14) remaining in the sample. This calculator estimates the age based on the decay rate of C-14.
Enter the percentage of C-14 remaining compared to a living organism (between 0.001% and 100%).
Estimated Age
Carbon-14 Decay Curve
How Radiocarbon Dating Works
Radiocarbon dating works because all living organisms absorb carbon from their environment, including a small amount of radioactive C-14. When an organism dies, it stops absorbing new carbon, and the C-14 begins to decay at a known rate.
By measuring the amount of C-14 remaining in a sample and comparing it to the amount in living organisms, scientists can calculate how long ago the organism died.
The Radiocarbon Dating Formula
t = -8033 × ln(Nₜ/N₀), where t is the age in years, 8033 is the mean lifetime of C-14, Nₜ is the current amount of C-14, and N₀ is the initial amount.
Documentation
Radiocarbon Dating Calculator: Determine the Age of Organic Materials
Introduction to Radiocarbon Dating
Radiocarbon dating (also known as carbon-14 dating) is a powerful scientific method used to determine the age of organic materials up to approximately 50,000 years old. This radiocarbon dating calculator provides a simple way to estimate the age of archaeological, geological, and paleontological samples based on the decay of Carbon-14 (¹⁴C) isotopes. By measuring the amount of radioactive carbon remaining in a sample and applying the known decay rate, scientists can calculate when an organism died with remarkable precision.
Carbon-14 is a radioactive isotope that forms naturally in the atmosphere and is absorbed by all living organisms. When an organism dies, it stops absorbing new carbon, and the existing Carbon-14 begins to decay at a constant rate. By comparing the ratio of Carbon-14 to stable Carbon-12 in a sample to the ratio in living organisms, our calculator can determine how long ago the organism died.
This comprehensive guide explains how to use our radiocarbon dating calculator, the science behind the method, its applications across multiple disciplines, and its limitations. Whether you're an archaeologist, student, or simply curious about how scientists determine the age of ancient artifacts and fossils, this tool provides valuable insights into one of science's most important dating techniques.
The Science of Radiocarbon Dating
How Carbon-14 Forms and Decays
Carbon-14 is continuously produced in the upper atmosphere when cosmic rays interact with nitrogen atoms. The resulting radioactive carbon quickly oxidizes to form carbon dioxide (CO₂), which is then incorporated into plants through photosynthesis and into animals through the food chain. This creates an equilibrium where all living organisms maintain a constant ratio of Carbon-14 to Carbon-12 that matches the atmospheric ratio.
When an organism dies, it stops exchanging carbon with the environment, and the Carbon-14 begins to decay back to nitrogen through beta decay:
This decay occurs at a constant rate, with Carbon-14 having a half-life of approximately 5,730 years. This means that after 5,730 years, half of the original Carbon-14 atoms will have decayed. After another 5,730 years, half of the remaining atoms will decay, and so on.
The Radiocarbon Dating Formula
The age of a sample can be calculated using the following exponential decay formula:
Where:
- is the age of the sample in years
- is the mean lifetime of Carbon-14 (8,033 years, derived from the half-life)
- is the amount of Carbon-14 in the sample now
- is the amount of Carbon-14 when the organism died (equivalent to the amount in living organisms)
- is the natural logarithm
The ratio can be expressed either as a percentage (0-100%) or as a direct ratio of Carbon-14 to Carbon-12 compared to modern standards.
Calculation Methods
Our calculator offers two methods for determining the age of a sample:
- Percentage Method: Enter the percentage of Carbon-14 remaining in the sample compared to a modern reference standard.
- Ratio Method: Enter the current C-14/C-12 ratio in the sample and the initial ratio in living organisms.
Both methods use the same underlying formula but offer flexibility depending on how your sample measurements were reported.
How to Use the Radiocarbon Dating Calculator
Step-by-Step Guide
-
Select Input Method:
- Choose either "Percentage of C-14 Remaining" or "C-14/C-12 Ratio" based on your available data.
-
For Percentage Method:
- Enter the percentage of Carbon-14 remaining in your sample compared to a modern reference standard (between 0.001% and 100%).
- For example, if your sample has 50% of the Carbon-14 found in living organisms, enter "50".
-
For Ratio Method:
- Enter the current C-14/C-12 ratio measured in your sample.
- Enter the initial C-14/C-12 ratio (the reference standard, typically from modern samples).
- For example, if your sample has a ratio that's 0.5 times the modern standard, enter "0.5" for current and "1" for initial.
-
View Results:
- The calculator will instantly display the estimated age of your sample.
- The result will be shown in years or thousands of years, depending on the age.
- A visual representation of the decay curve will highlight where your sample falls on the timeline.
-
Copy Results (optional):
- Click the "Copy" button to copy the calculated age to your clipboard.
Understanding the Visualization
The calculator includes a decay curve visualization that shows:
- The exponential decay of Carbon-14 over time
- The half-life point (5,730 years) marked on the curve
- Your sample's position on the curve (if within the visible range)
- The percentage of Carbon-14 remaining at different ages
This visualization helps you understand how the decay process works and where your sample fits in the timeline of Carbon-14 decay.
Input Validation and Error Handling
The calculator performs several validation checks to ensure accurate results:
- Percentage values must be between 0.001% and 100%
- Ratio values must be positive
- Current ratio cannot be greater than the initial ratio
- Very small values approaching zero may be adjusted to prevent calculation errors
If you enter invalid data, the calculator will display an error message explaining the issue and how to correct it.
Applications of Radiocarbon Dating
Archaeology
Radiocarbon dating has revolutionized archaeology by providing a reliable method to date organic artifacts. It's commonly used to determine the age of:
- Charcoal from ancient hearths
- Wooden artifacts and tools
- Textiles and clothing
- Human and animal remains
- Food residues on pottery
- Ancient scrolls and manuscripts
For example, radiocarbon dating helped establish the chronology of ancient Egyptian dynasties by dating organic materials found in tombs and settlements.
Geology and Earth Sciences
In geological studies, radiocarbon dating helps:
- Date recent geological events (within the last 50,000 years)
- Establish chronologies for sediment layers
- Study rates of deposition in lakes and oceans
- Investigate past climate changes
- Track changes in sea levels
- Date volcanic eruptions that contain organic materials
Paleontology
Paleontologists use radiocarbon dating to:
- Determine when species became extinct
- Study migration patterns of ancient humans and animals
- Establish timelines for evolutionary changes
- Date fossils from the Late Pleistocene period
- Investigate the timing of megafauna extinctions
Environmental Science
Environmental applications include:
- Dating soil organic matter to study carbon cycling
- Investigating groundwater age and movement
- Studying the residence time of carbon in different ecosystems
- Tracking the fate of pollutants in the environment
- Dating ice cores to study past climate conditions
Forensic Science
In forensic investigations, radiocarbon dating can:
- Help determine the age of unidentified human remains
- Authenticate art and artifacts
- Detect fraudulent antiques and documents
- Distinguish between modern and historical ivory to combat illegal wildlife trade
Limitations and Considerations
While radiocarbon dating is a powerful tool, it has several limitations:
- Age Range: Effective for materials between approximately 300 and 50,000 years old
- Sample Type: Only works for materials that were once living organisms
- Sample Size: Requires sufficient carbon content for accurate measurement
- Contamination: Modern carbon contamination can significantly skew results
- Calibration: Raw radiocarbon dates must be calibrated to account for historical variations in atmospheric Carbon-14
- Reservoir Effects: Marine samples require corrections due to different carbon cycling in oceans
Alternatives to Radiocarbon Dating
| Dating Method | Applicable Materials | Age Range | Advantages | Limitations |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Potassium-Argon | Volcanic rocks | 100,000 to billions of years | Very long age range | Cannot date organic materials |
| Uranium Series | Carbonates, bones, teeth | 500 to 500,000 years | Works on inorganic materials | Complex sample preparation |
| Thermoluminescence | Pottery, burnt flint | 1,000 to 500,000 years | Works on inorganic materials | Less precise than radiocarbon |
| Optically Stimulated Luminescence | Sediments, pottery | 1,000 to 200,000 years | Dates when material was last exposed to light | Environmental factors affect accuracy |
| Dendrochronology (Tree-ring dating) | Wood | Up to 12,000 years | Very precise (annual resolution) | Limited to regions with suitable tree records |
| Amino Acid Racemization | Shells, bones, teeth | 1,000 to 1 million years | Works on both organic and inorganic materials | Highly temperature dependent |
History of Radiocarbon Dating
Discovery and Development
The radiocarbon dating method was developed by American chemist Willard Libby and his colleagues at the University of Chicago in the late 1940s. For this groundbreaking work, Libby was awarded the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1960.
The key milestones in the development of radiocarbon dating include:
- 1934: Franz Kurie suggests the existence of Carbon-14
- 1939: Serge Korff discovers that cosmic rays create Carbon-14 in the upper atmosphere
- 1946: Willard Libby proposes using Carbon-14 for dating ancient artifacts
- 1949: Libby and his team date samples of known age to verify the method
- 1950: First publication of radiocarbon dates in the journal Science
- 1955: First commercial radiocarbon dating laboratories established
- 1960: Libby awarded the Nobel Prize in Chemistry
Technological Advancements
The accuracy and precision of radiocarbon dating have improved significantly over time:
- 1950s-1960s: Conventional counting methods (gas proportional counting, liquid scintillation counting)
- 1970s: Development of calibration curves to account for atmospheric Carbon-14 variations
- 1977: Introduction of Accelerator Mass Spectrometry (AMS), allowing for smaller sample sizes
- 1980s: Refinement of sample preparation techniques to reduce contamination
- 1990s-2000s: Development of high-precision AMS facilities
- 2010s-Present: Bayesian statistical methods for improved calibration and chronological modeling
Calibration Development
Scientists discovered that the concentration of Carbon-14 in the atmosphere has not been constant over time, necessitating calibration of raw radiocarbon dates. Key developments include:
- 1960s: Discovery of variations in atmospheric Carbon-14 levels
- 1970s: First calibration curves based on tree rings
- 1980s: Extension of calibration using corals and varved sediments
- 1990s: IntCal project established to create international calibration standards
- 2020: Latest calibration curves (IntCal20, Marine20, SHCal20) incorporating new data and statistical methods
Code Examples for Radiocarbon Dating Calculations
Python
1import math
2import numpy as np
3import matplotlib.pyplot as plt
4
5def calculate_age_from_percentage(percent_remaining):
6 """
7 Calculate age from percentage of C-14 remaining
8
9 Args:
10 percent_remaining: Percentage of C-14 remaining (0-100)
11
12 Returns:
13 Age in years
14 """
15 if percent_remaining <= 0 or percent_remaining > 100:
16 raise ValueError("Percentage must be between 0 and 100")
17
18 # Mean lifetime of C-14 (derived from half-life of 5,730 years)
19 mean_lifetime = 8033
20
21 # Calculate age using exponential decay formula
22 ratio = percent_remaining / 100
23 age = -mean_lifetime * math.log(ratio)
24
25 return age
26
27def calculate_age_from_ratio(current_ratio, initial_ratio):
28 """
29 Calculate age from C-14/C-12 ratio
30
31 Args:
32 current_ratio: Current C-14/C-12 ratio in sample
33 initial_ratio: Initial C-14/C-12 ratio in living organism
34
35 Returns:
36 Age in years
37 """
38 if current_ratio <= 0 or initial_ratio <= 0:
39 raise ValueError("Ratios must be positive")
40
41 if current_ratio > initial_ratio:
42 raise ValueError("Current ratio cannot be greater than initial ratio")
43
44 # Mean lifetime of C-14
45 mean_lifetime = 8033
46
47 # Calculate age using exponential decay formula
48 ratio = current_ratio / initial_ratio
49 age = -mean_lifetime * math.log(ratio)
50
51 return age
52
53# Example usage
54try:
55 # Using percentage method
56 percent = 25 # 25% of C-14 remaining
57 age1 = calculate_age_from_percentage(percent)
58 print(f"Sample with {percent}% C-14 remaining is approximately {age1:.0f} years old")
59
60 # Using ratio method
61 current = 0.25 # Current ratio
62 initial = 1.0 # Initial ratio
63 age2 = calculate_age_from_ratio(current, initial)
64 print(f"Sample with C-14/C-12 ratio of {current} (initial {initial}) is approximately {age2:.0f} years old")
65
66 # Plot decay curve
67 years = np.linspace(0, 50000, 1000)
68 percent_remaining = 100 * np.exp(-years / 8033)
69
70 plt.figure(figsize=(10, 6))
71 plt.plot(years, percent_remaining)
72 plt.axhline(y=50, color='r', linestyle='--', alpha=0.7)
73 plt.axvline(x=5730, color='r', linestyle='--', alpha=0.7)
74 plt.text(6000, 45, "Half-life (5,730 years)")
75 plt.xlabel("Age (years)")
76 plt.ylabel("C-14 Remaining (%)")
77 plt.title("Carbon-14 Decay Curve")
78 plt.grid(True, alpha=0.3)
79 plt.show()
80
81except ValueError as e:
82 print(f"Error: {e}")
83JavaScript
1/**
2 * Calculate age from percentage of C-14 remaining
3 * @param {number} percentRemaining - Percentage of C-14 remaining (0-100)
4 * @returns {number} Age in years
5 */
6function calculateAgeFromPercentage(percentRemaining) {
7 if (percentRemaining <= 0 || percentRemaining > 100) {
8 throw new Error("Percentage must be between 0 and 100");
9 }
10
11 // Mean lifetime of C-14 (derived from half-life of 5,730 years)
12 const meanLifetime = 8033;
13
14 // Calculate age using exponential decay formula
15 const ratio = percentRemaining / 100;
16 const age = -meanLifetime * Math.log(ratio);
17
18 return age;
19}
20
21/**
22 * Calculate age from C-14/C-12 ratio
23 * @param {number} currentRatio - Current C-14/C-12 ratio in sample
24 * @param {number} initialRatio - Initial C-14/C-12 ratio in living organism
25 * @returns {number} Age in years
26 */
27function calculateAgeFromRatio(currentRatio, initialRatio) {
28 if (currentRatio <= 0 || initialRatio <= 0) {
29 throw new Error("Ratios must be positive");
30 }
31
32 if (currentRatio > initialRatio) {
33 throw new Error("Current ratio cannot be greater than initial ratio");
34 }
35
36 // Mean lifetime of C-14
37 const meanLifetime = 8033;
38
39 // Calculate age using exponential decay formula
40 const ratio = currentRatio / initialRatio;
41 const age = -meanLifetime * Math.log(ratio);
42
43 return age;
44}
45
46/**
47 * Format age with appropriate units
48 * @param {number} age - Age in years
49 * @returns {string} Formatted age string
50 */
51function formatAge(age) {
52 if (age < 1000) {
53 return `${Math.round(age)} years`;
54 } else {
55 return `${(age / 1000).toFixed(2)} thousand years`;
56 }
57}
58
59// Example usage
60try {
61 // Using percentage method
62 const percent = 25; // 25% of C-14 remaining
63 const age1 = calculateAgeFromPercentage(percent);
64 console.log(`Sample with ${percent}% C-14 remaining is approximately ${formatAge(age1)}`);
65
66 // Using ratio method
67 const current = 0.25; // Current ratio
68 const initial = 1.0; // Initial ratio
69 const age2 = calculateAgeFromRatio(current, initial);
70 console.log(`Sample with C-14/C-12 ratio of ${current} (initial ${initial}) is approximately ${formatAge(age2)}`);
71} catch (error) {
72 console.error(`Error: ${error.message}`);
73}
74R
1# Calculate age from percentage of C-14 remaining
2calculate_age_from_percentage <- function(percent_remaining) {
3 if (percent_remaining <= 0 || percent_remaining > 100) {
4 stop("Percentage must be between 0 and 100")
5 }
6
7 # Mean lifetime of C-14 (derived from half-life of 5,730 years)
8 mean_lifetime <- 8033
9
10 # Calculate age using exponential decay formula
11 ratio <- percent_remaining / 100
12 age <- -mean_lifetime * log(ratio)
13
14 return(age)
15}
16
17# Calculate age from C-14/C-12 ratio
18calculate_age_from_ratio <- function(current_ratio, initial_ratio) {
19 if (current_ratio <= 0 || initial_ratio <= 0) {
20 stop("Ratios must be positive")
21 }
22
23 if (current_ratio > initial_ratio) {
24 stop("Current ratio cannot be greater than initial ratio")
25 }
26
27 # Mean lifetime of C-14
28 mean_lifetime <- 8033
29
30 # Calculate age using exponential decay formula
31 ratio <- current_ratio / initial_ratio
32 age <- -mean_lifetime * log(ratio)
33
34 return(age)
35}
36
37# Format age with appropriate units
38format_age <- function(age) {
39 if (age < 1000) {
40 return(paste(round(age), "years"))
41 } else {
42 return(paste(format(age / 1000, digits = 4), "thousand years"))
43 }
44}
45
46# Example usage
47tryCatch({
48 # Using percentage method
49 percent <- 25 # 25% of C-14 remaining
50 age1 <- calculate_age_from_percentage(percent)
51 cat(sprintf("Sample with %d%% C-14 remaining is approximately %s\n",
52 percent, format_age(age1)))
53
54 # Using ratio method
55 current <- 0.25 # Current ratio
56 initial <- 1.0 # Initial ratio
57 age2 <- calculate_age_from_ratio(current, initial)
58 cat(sprintf("Sample with C-14/C-12 ratio of %.2f (initial %.1f) is approximately %s\n",
59 current, initial, format_age(age2)))
60
61 # Plot decay curve
62 years <- seq(0, 50000, by = 50)
63 percent_remaining <- 100 * exp(-years / 8033)
64
65 plot(years, percent_remaining, type = "l",
66 xlab = "Age (years)", ylab = "C-14 Remaining (%)",
67 main = "Carbon-14 Decay Curve",
68 col = "blue", lwd = 2)
69
70 # Add half-life marker
71 abline(h = 50, col = "red", lty = 2)
72 abline(v = 5730, col = "red", lty = 2)
73 text(x = 6000, y = 45, labels = "Half-life (5,730 years)")
74
75 # Add grid
76 grid()
77
78}, error = function(e) {
79 cat(sprintf("Error: %s\n", e$message))
80})
81Excel
1' Excel formula for calculating age from percentage of C-14 remaining
2=IF(A2<=0,"Error: Percentage must be positive",IF(A2>100,"Error: Percentage cannot exceed 100",-8033*LN(A2/100)))
3
4' Where A2 contains the percentage of C-14 remaining
5
6' Excel formula for calculating age from C-14/C-12 ratio
7=IF(OR(A2<=0,B2<=0),"Error: Ratios must be positive",IF(A2>B2,"Error: Current ratio cannot exceed initial ratio",-8033*LN(A2/B2)))
8
9' Where A2 contains the current ratio and B2 contains the initial ratio
10
11' Excel VBA function for radiocarbon dating calculations
12Function RadiocarbonAge(percentRemaining As Double) As Variant
13 ' Calculate age from percentage of C-14 remaining
14
15 If percentRemaining <= 0 Or percentRemaining > 100 Then
16 RadiocarbonAge = "Error: Percentage must be between 0 and 100"
17 Exit Function
18 End If
19
20 ' Mean lifetime of C-14 (derived from half-life of 5,730 years)
21 Dim meanLifetime As Double
22 meanLifetime = 8033
23
24 ' Calculate age using exponential decay formula
25 Dim ratio As Double
26 ratio = percentRemaining / 100
27
28 RadiocarbonAge = -meanLifetime * Log(ratio)
29End Function
30Frequently Asked Questions
How accurate is radiocarbon dating?
Radiocarbon dating typically has a precision of ±20 to ±300 years, depending on the sample age, quality, and measurement technique. Modern AMS (Accelerator Mass Spectrometry) methods can achieve higher precision, especially for younger samples. However, accuracy depends on proper calibration to account for historical variations in atmospheric Carbon-14 levels. After calibration, dates can be accurate to within decades for recent samples and a few hundred years for older samples.
What is the maximum age that can be determined using radiocarbon dating?
Radiocarbon dating is generally reliable for samples up to about 50,000 years old. Beyond this age, the amount of Carbon-14 remaining becomes too small to measure accurately with current technology. For older samples, other dating methods like potassium-argon dating or uranium-series dating are more appropriate.
Can radiocarbon dating be used on any type of material?
No, radiocarbon dating can only be used on materials that were once living organisms and therefore contained carbon derived from atmospheric CO₂. This includes:
- Wood, charcoal, and plant remains
- Bone, antler, shell, and other animal remains
- Textiles made from plant or animal fibers
- Paper and parchment
- Organic residues on pottery or tools
Materials like stone, pottery, and metal cannot be directly dated using radiocarbon methods unless they contain organic residues.
How does contamination affect radiocarbon dating results?
Contamination can significantly affect radiocarbon dating results, especially for older samples where even small amounts of modern carbon can lead to substantial errors. Common sources of contamination include:
- Modern carbon introduced during collection, storage, or handling
- Soil humic acids that may infiltrate porous materials
- Conservation treatments applied to artifacts
- Biological contaminants like fungal growth or bacterial biofilms
- Chemical contaminants from the burial environment
Proper sample collection, storage, and pretreatment procedures are essential to minimize contamination effects.
What is calibration and why is it necessary?
Calibration is necessary because the concentration of Carbon-14 in the atmosphere has not been constant over time. Variations are caused by:
- Changes in the Earth's magnetic field
- Solar activity fluctuations
- Nuclear weapons testing (which nearly doubled atmospheric C-14 in the 1950s-60s)
- Fossil fuel burning (which dilutes atmospheric C-14)
Raw radiocarbon dates must be converted to calendar years using calibration curves derived from samples of known age, such as tree rings, lake varves, and coral records. This process can sometimes result in multiple possible calendar date ranges for a single radiocarbon date.
How are samples prepared for radiocarbon dating?
Sample preparation typically involves several steps:
- Physical cleaning: Removing visible contaminants
- Chemical pretreatment: Using acid-base-acid (ABA) or other methods to remove contaminants
- Extraction: Isolating specific components (like collagen from bones)
- Combustion: Converting the sample to CO₂
- Graphitization: For AMS dating, converting CO₂ to graphite
- Measurement: Using AMS or conventional counting methods
The specific procedures vary depending on the sample type and laboratory protocols.
What is the "reservoir effect" in radiocarbon dating?
The reservoir effect occurs when carbon in a sample comes from a source that is not in equilibrium with atmospheric carbon. The most common example is marine samples (shells, fish bones, etc.), which can appear older than their true age because ocean water contains "old carbon" from deep currents. This creates a "reservoir age" that must be subtracted from the measured age. The magnitude of this effect varies by location and can range from about 200 to 2,000 years. Similar effects can occur in freshwater systems and in areas with volcanic activity.
How much sample material is needed for radiocarbon dating?
The amount of material required depends on the dating method and the carbon content of the sample:
- AMS (Accelerator Mass Spectrometry): Typically requires 0.5-10 mg of carbon (e.g., 5-50 mg of bone collagen, 10-20 mg of charcoal)
- Conventional methods: Require much larger samples, typically 1-10 g of carbon
Modern AMS techniques continue to reduce sample size requirements, making it possible to date precious artifacts with minimal damage.
Can living organisms be radiocarbon dated?
Living organisms maintain a dynamic equilibrium with atmospheric carbon through respiration or photosynthesis, so their Carbon-14 content reflects current atmospheric levels. Therefore, living organisms would yield a radiocarbon age of approximately zero years (modern). However, due to fossil fuel emissions (which add "dead" carbon to the atmosphere) and nuclear testing (which added "bomb carbon"), modern samples can show slight deviations from the expected value, requiring special calibration.
How does radiocarbon dating compare to other dating methods?
Radiocarbon dating is just one of many dating techniques used by scientists. It's particularly valuable for the time range of approximately 300-50,000 years ago. For comparison:
- Dendrochronology (tree-ring dating) is more precise but limited to wood and the last ~12,000 years
- Potassium-argon dating works on much older materials (100,000 to billions of years)
- Thermoluminescence can date pottery and burnt materials from 1,000 to 500,000 years ago
- Optically Stimulated Luminescence dates when sediments were last exposed to light
The best dating approach often involves using multiple methods to cross-check results.
References
-
Libby, W.F. (1955). Radiocarbon Dating. University of Chicago Press.
-
Bronk Ramsey, C. (2008). Radiocarbon dating: Revolutions in understanding. Archaeometry, 50(2), 249-275.
-
Taylor, R.E., & Bar-Yosef, O. (2014). Radiocarbon Dating: An Archaeological Perspective. Left Coast Press.
-
Reimer, P.J., et al. (2020). The IntCal20 Northern Hemisphere radiocarbon age calibration curve (0–55 cal kBP). Radiocarbon, 62(4), 725-757.
-
Hajdas, I. (2008). Radiocarbon dating and its applications in Quaternary studies. Eiszeitalter und Gegenwart Quaternary Science Journal, 57(1-2), 2-24.
-
Jull, A.J.T. (2018). Radiocarbon Dating: AMS Method. Encyclopedia of Archaeological Sciences, 1-5.
-
Bayliss, A. (2009). Rolling out revolution: Using radiocarbon dating in archaeology. Radiocarbon, 51(1), 123-147.
-
Wood, R. (2015). From revolution to convention: The past, present and future of radiocarbon dating. Journal of Archaeological Science, 56, 61-72.
-
Stuiver, M., & Polach, H.A. (1977). Discussion: Reporting of 14C data. Radiocarbon, 19(3), 355-363.
-
Hua, Q., Barbetti, M., & Rakowski, A.Z. (2013). Atmospheric radiocarbon for the period 1950–2010. Radiocarbon, 55(4), 2059-2072.
Our Radiocarbon Dating Calculator provides a simple yet powerful way to estimate the age of organic materials based on Carbon-14 decay. Try it today to explore the fascinating world of archaeological dating and understand how scientists uncover the timeline of our past. For more accurate results, remember that professional radiocarbon dating by specialized laboratories is recommended for scientific research and archaeological projects.
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